How Can Light, Plus Glass, Equal The Internet?

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Like this? Watch our video about underwater internet cables → g.co/go/NLcables ✨
Share on Facebook → goo.gl/ikwnPl | Follow us → / natandlo
Subscribe → goo.gl/CEsJyN | More in the description below 👇
Fiber optics, a.k.a. strands of glass the width of a human hair, transmit billions of pulses of light every second, to help these words, this video, and everything else on the internet reach your screen. But what does this actually mean? In this video we’re zooming in to reveal the magnitude of what’s happening at the microscopic level of the internet.
Want to watch some more videos about fiber optics?
Here’s an awesome video by Physics Girl called “How to control light with water” → goo.gl/P0lIHv
Here’s a cool video about how fiber optic glass is made → goo.gl/JbPd8R
Great video by Minute Physics explaining how lasers work → goo.gl/g3X1ra
Thanks to Vibe Mountain for the music in this video, and our friends Simone Noronha and Mixtape Club for the illustrations & animations.
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Check out ALL the videos we’ve made → goo.gl/8UyyHP
:)
Nat & Lo
/ natandlo -- We make videos where we go behind the scenes at Google. What are you curious about? Let us know!

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16 фев 2017

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Комментарии : 508

@natandfriends 7 лет назад

I am beyond impressed by all the thoughtful questions you've been asking in the comments. Thank you! And many, many thanks to Vijay for answering so many of them. Please give the comments a read and you'll discover so much more about fiber optics!

@MICWIK 7 лет назад

Nat and Lo If their are some bends between some path The speed slow down or they have some other instruments to improve it..?

@SageScientific 7 лет назад

The light travels down the core of the fiber by total internal reflection, so the bends don't really slow down the light. The cladding has a lower index of refraction then the core, so shallow incidence light will simply reflect of the core/clad interface very efficiently. The same principle applies if you were submersed underwater and you looked out away from you (not straight up). You will see the subsurface water reflect back towards you at the water surface and you won't be able to see out to the sky.

@MICWIK 7 лет назад

SJS 22 OK Thanks

@factsverse9957 7 лет назад

Nat and Lo Happy 100K subs

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

As SJS 22 pointed out, bends in fiber do not impact the speed of transmission, but they do impact the amount of light that is guided vs. scattered away. That is the reason why most common fibers have bend limiters that ensure that the fiber is not bent too much. There are new fibers called bend insensitive fibers, that (as the name implies) are indeed insensitive to bends. These are used in in-home or in-premises fibering.

@alokesingh6243 7 лет назад

their vids are underrated agreed?

@top1percent424 7 лет назад

aloke singh PewDiePie is the reason.

@alokesingh6243 7 лет назад

maybe he is

@nathanallen603 7 лет назад

aloke singh agreed

@bessysogeibymarquezavila5671 7 лет назад

Orrange

@SURENITY 6 лет назад

yes!!

@22550T 7 лет назад

FIRST

@walangid 7 лет назад

Túlio Silva SECOND

@alasdairbarton 7 лет назад

PROBABLY LAST

@vexedin-7091 7 лет назад

Wireless Biscuits NO IM LAST

@hpattarapol 7 лет назад

What happened when internet crashed?

@cahilreilly9849 7 лет назад

Túlio Silva cathal like you girl :) text me girl :)

@mtdagar 7 лет назад

I just love the way you present your videos, the visuals and all. It makes such complicated concepts so easy to understand. I'm always waiting for your videos!

@Glatroz 7 лет назад

You guys easily have one of the most informative, fun, pedagogical, exciting, cute editing channels on RU-vid. Keep it up Nat & Lo! :) PS. A small wish would be to see if you in future could explore the things they do at Calico!

@natandfriends 7 лет назад

Thank you for the detailed, interesting, fun to read, engaging comment!

@cosmicwarriorx1 7 лет назад

I have always thought that this channel is highly underrated.... ¯\_(ツ)_/¯ btw where's lo..... just kidding... 😛

@paradox... 7 лет назад

For goodness' sake she told us where Lo is in the first 10 seconds of the video!!

@darth9306 7 лет назад

If you clicked read more you would see

@lequadone 7 лет назад

mrigendra kumar prajapati Try watching at the beginning

@cosmicwarriorx1 7 лет назад

Kirk Tremblay try reading the full comment... 😜

@TheWuBzChannel 7 лет назад

Very well created video Nat :)!

@ravirajawasthi 7 лет назад

all that animation and knowledge in less than 6 minutes. That was great!

@PicuPiee 7 лет назад

this is by far, the most fun way to explain about fiber glass. :)

@drmkiwi 7 лет назад

Fantastic explanation. Thanks. Also, congratulations on 100K.

@supersat 7 лет назад

I really appreciate that this video touches on single mode vs multimode fiber without getting bogged down in the details

@natandfriends 7 лет назад

There are so many details! Glad you appreciated this video.

@MarcDuchesne 5 лет назад

Just discovered your YT channel yesterday, searching for material for a new training course on Fiber-To-The-Home I'll provide to novices. Absolutely awesome work you're doing here, Ladies. Congrats !

@FoxMcCloud94 7 лет назад

I remember receiving a tour through the Corning Sullivan Park Facility and seeing all the different devices that they produce their glass for. I actually got to see their production of those fiber optic cables and they explained how much faster internet can travel through those cables, rather than standard copper wires. Man I wish they had more places with fiber optics available for ISPs.

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

Yes - Corning has a long and illustrious history in fiber optics. See www.cmog.org/glassmaking/demos/optical-fiber for Corning museum of glass / fiber making demos

@FoxMcCloud94 7 лет назад

Vijay Vusirikala yes, being from the area I've seen quite a few in person glass /fiber optic making. It's funny that even being so close to the actual plant that makes them... Doesn't mean you can get fiber optic Internet.

@sumitshinde2529 5 лет назад

Thank you Nat for creating such awesome video. Thank you Vijay for being so generous sharing knowledge & explaining each small query. Appreciate !!

@ARepublicIfYouCanKeepIt 7 лет назад

Fascinating and engaging. Thanks for questioning, researching and producing such a wonderfully helpful video.

@janetdavis1732 7 лет назад

Great information to explain something simple/complicated. Thank you.

@aemind 7 лет назад

This is absolutely fascinating!

@MichaelSouhoka 7 лет назад

Great that Lo is on vacation to Colombia. I hope Bali will be the next journey for you both!

@muhammadhannan6701 7 лет назад

Nat, that's what I'm thinking how a tiny glass can do all of these amazing things. Thank you for your awesome video :)

@bisschops99 7 лет назад

I have a question: When you connect a fiber optic cable to some equipment, lets say a router, the light is transformed into an electronic signal. However electricity has a slower speed then light.* Does this mean that the speed of the whole setup is limited by the speed of the electricity? (* the speed of the signal not the electrons)

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

Time taken for transmission of information depends on two factors (a) transmission time determined by the speed of light in fiber, and (b) size of transmission pipe and factors for buffering information and re-transmission if there is congestion etc. Purely from the perspective of transmission time, it is interesting to note that speed of transmission in fiber is actually slower than the speed of transmission in copper (electrical). The reason for this is the speed of transmission in fiber is (speed of light in vacuum) / (refractive index of glass fiber). Since refractive index of glass is about 1.5, the speed of light transmission is 2*10^5 km/s, while it is ~3*10^5 km/s in copper. However, since the transmission rates in copper are much smaller than in fiber, the effective time taken to send a certain of data across a fiber optic link is much smaller than a copper link, even though the transmission speed is slower in fiber than copper

@hong1065 7 лет назад

so inspiring. thanks for breaking it down for us.

@StevePilgrim2013 7 лет назад

Terrific video with excellent explanations!

@aminator1 7 лет назад

Thank you, Nat and Lo! Incredible video once again!

@natandfriends 7 лет назад

you are welcome!

@luca35821 7 лет назад

i actually work for an ISP Company and this video is really accurate and very well explained :)

@whatever32135 7 лет назад

Is the light going in one direction or both?

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

In almost all of modern optical communication networks, the light goes in one direction. So, we use two fiber strands, one in each direction to complete a transmit + receive link. It is definitely possible to send light in both directions at the same time, and there are indeed a few applications that do that. It is just that sending light in both directions makes the peeling off from the two directions a little more complicated and there are also some subtle complications in distinguishing the reflected signal of the transmit direction from the receive signal.

@RineshAndrews 7 лет назад

Excellent...Simple Presentation & informative...Best Wishes

@deliriumwaltz 7 лет назад

this was fascinating, thanks

@legiang8045 7 лет назад

Thank you! Your videos are so interesting. I love them.

@symondish 7 лет назад

As always very well presented and explained...thanks girls ..👍

@SuperMuha2 7 лет назад

How long can this cables stay there? When and how do you take them out, if they get damaged? It wouldn't be efficient when you try taking out the whole cable, so do you cut a part of the cable out and if yes does this damage the 2 ends, which were effected by the cut?

@StefanoVazzoler 7 лет назад

Milletimisev I believe that those cables are already split in different parts connected together by 'amplifiers' that help the signal travel the long distance (in the case of underwater cables). I think that you can just join any two ends. but don't quote me on that. hopefully you'll get an official reply.

@SuperMuha2 7 лет назад

Stefano Vazzoler thank you, I hope so too.

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

As Stefano pointed out, the end-to-end cable is already "punctuated" by amplifiers every 80-100 km in a longhaul network that spans a region or a country. These fibers are typically puled through in buried conduits or are along power lines. They last for 20-30 years as the glass does not degrade over that period. Fiber cuts and repairs are not uncommon and we have to plan for the damaged fiber to be repaired. The entire fiber does not need to be replaced. Just the damaged portion can be fixed by attaching a small fiber segment and "splicing" on both ends of the damage.

@matthewpull9178 7 лет назад

Another fantastic and interesting video :)

@andrewrosenberg7905 7 лет назад

Awesome vid! Keep bringing the great content!

@SuperMuha2 7 лет назад

How much data can a fiber cable (with 1 glass core) transfer? How big is the increase when you use 7 cores parallel? Would be interesting to know :)

@PreshitDeorukhkar 7 лет назад

That depends on the distance you're transferring the data between. But it's an insane amount, so to speak. Back in 2013, NEC (Japan) and Corning (known for its glass) managed to transmit data at 1Pbps (Petabits per second) speed, or 1000 Terabits per second. Now that's what you call an insane speed. Of course, this was all done in labs in a controlled environment, and several factors affect its real world usage. And with 7 cores parallel, the increase would be 7 times the single-core speed. :)

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

As captured in the comments above, the exact increase in capacity by going from 1 core to 7 cores depends on a few factors like how close the cores are to each other (causing crosstalk if there very close) and the type of transmitting and receiving optics used at both ends. In general, we can assume an increase of 4-5x. Also note that most of the multicore work done has been in the lab so far and multicore fibers and associated optics are not yet deployed widely.

@SuperMuha2 7 лет назад

Vijay Vusirikala why don't people use 7 cores, then they have to pay more but I think the costs to place them will be the same?

@PreshitDeorukhkar 7 лет назад

Placing them close to each other is the problem. Try this - make your friend stand 5 meters away from you and ask him to say something, and you have figure out what he's saying with your eyes closed. Easy, right? Now imagine there are 6 other friends standing next to him, all saying different sentences but talking at the same time. Can you make out who is saying what with your eyes closed? It's not impossible, but makes it more difficult. Just like copper wires placed too close to each other has issues, placing 7 cores close to each other has several issues, and real-world implementation is still a few years away, I think.

@AkshayAradhya 7 лет назад

This is just a guess. At 3:45 she says it can modulate 200 billion times a second Which equals 200 Gigabits per second.

@iceezander 7 лет назад

You guys are quite simply amazing 😉

@revm4942 7 лет назад

would love to see more videos from you guys

@vinno97 7 лет назад

Hey Vijay, I have a question about the "reading" and "writing" of the lasers beams. How do you create and read the different wavelengths without having them interfere? Do you have a unit for every wavelength and then merge/split the glass threads? Or do you have one insane laser/sensor that can handle them all?

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

The main reason infra-red wavelengths are used in fiber optics is that standard fiber has the lowest loss (attenuation) in the infra-red region (at approx. 1.5 microns wavelength). This enables long-distance transmission with minimal loss (and hence minimal amplification required to compensate for the loss)

@thefaqih07 7 лет назад

Thankyou for sharing!

@1122334450 7 лет назад

Great video, thank you so much.

@pranavsorte4227 7 лет назад

your videos are great! presentation is awesome! I just like these videos, like I never get bored *

@No_Mikey_No 7 лет назад

I love your explanation animations, so funny and cool :D

@joanlehmann5178 7 лет назад

Another great informative video. I learn so much from Nat and Lo. Love that you encourage intellectual curiosity in such a fun way. And I'm sending this comment over a tiny hair-width piece of glass. Well done!

@natandfriends 7 лет назад

Thank you Joan!

@iamsorrybut2370 7 лет назад

3:03 lol the views are stuck at 301 who else remember the old days?

@aaron2024_1 4 года назад

Yeaaaaaaaaaaahhhh

@haroonaj0 6 лет назад

Thanks for these great informations..

@accesser 7 лет назад

Please do a video about the equipment at each end of the cable :-) Pretty amazing they push multiple signals down the same strand it would be really interesting to see some of the gear used for this

@procoding5924 7 лет назад

This is very informative and creative video!

@simitamukhopadhyay4014 7 лет назад

when some data gets transfered thro cables under the sea nat said that some kind of modulator was used . since the modulator sends the infra red waves without any kind of flickering how do then 0 and 1 get differentiated ?

@NadeemAhmed-nl3jd 6 лет назад

Omg! This video thrilled me! You deserve 1million subscribers

@handayercil4747 7 лет назад

I have been using youtube more frequently for the past year or so and I have noticed that some youtubers make really impressive and informative videos, like Nat and Lo, and get much less limelight than others who make pointless videos. Those videos obviously mean a lot to some thats why they get so many views but doesn't that say something about the direction we are going in ? Some might say they tune into youtube to refresh themselves, not to be lectured more; but heck, where are you going to find your source of refreshment explained as interestingly as this ? As MKBHD would say, it was dope :)

@manueljenkin95 7 лет назад

You could have explained about total internal reflection, which is the primary reason why we need a core and a cladding and not just a single stand. Light passing through a single strand of glass will fall out unlike the core and cladding combination in which total internal reflection occurs because of the difference in refractive indices.

@roseannaainslie5560 7 лет назад

Very coo! Thanks guys!

@trechform 7 лет назад

I very much am impressed with your style of video production. Bravo. :)

@shanghai_city 7 лет назад

Could you gals take us inside the RU-vid data center? Very underrated channel. I hope more subscribers join this channel.

@pandaking1606 7 лет назад

I learn a lot from you two

@gigibiruful 7 лет назад

still cannot comprehend that nat! 😂

@rajeevrawal6904 7 лет назад

thanks vijay i am too from india so do u and right now i am feeling very happy that there are many indians in the google company other than mr. sunder pichai

@ringraa 7 лет назад

Hey Vijay, how is the information,0/1s, actually transmitted? Is it from the displacement of waves or the presence and lack of presence of light.

@adamcvjetan7146 7 лет назад

ringraa As explained in the video (watch from 3:04), a short distance cable uses a laser which switched from 'on' to 'off', on being a 1, off being a 0. For longer distances, the laser is left on and something called a phase modulator adjusts it, sending the one or the zero. I am NOT an expert so don't take my word for everything I say, however most of this was already in the video (again, watch from 3:04). Have a nice day.

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

As ZEtAdda alluded to above, the type of transmitter and the mechanism of imposing the 0/1s on to the transmitter varies greatly by the reach and the datarate of transmission that you are targeting. For example, if the reach is a couple of kilometers, the laser is turned on and off by sending current and stopping current through the laser. At the receiving end, there is a simple photodetector that detects the presence or absence of light. For much longer distances (1000s of kilometers), this simple technique does not work. More advanced modulations (similar to the ones used in cable modems or DSL modems) are used whereby the phase of the light pulse is encoded with the 1/0s. At the receiver, a phase detector converts these back into the original data

@NewZeroGames 7 лет назад

I love this channel so much

@BhramarBhatnagar 7 лет назад

Yet another answer to not - so - dumb question... Thanks for the fantastic explanation and a plus for putting out those extra reading links in the description... P. S. Missing Lo! ;)

@SexyBakanishi 7 лет назад

Do signals ever get mixed up over long distances and what does that look like? If I wanted to write FIRST from Korea for example and it got mixed up what might it look like or would it just fail to post? It's hard to imagine because when I post this from Korea it shows up instantly even though I'm sure this video is uploaded from the States and maybe even stored in computers in the States.... Also I doubt the wires can lie perfectly flat all across the ocean, so does that affect the transmission of light through the wires?

@jfubele 7 лет назад

Great video!!!

@harriyu 7 лет назад

How does the pulse modulator on the other side of the ocean work? Like how does it know what to modulate if it's a straight beam of light?

@senalweerasekara 7 лет назад

need more vids..... love em

@atalkumarsingh7374 6 лет назад

nice explaination......nice video

@auto85454 7 лет назад

May I know more about the 'repeaters' in between? Thanks!

@TheRulerOfPenguins 7 лет назад

This is so dope. I actually got a question. If the cores move up to 7, how fast could data really travel? An example would be perfect (like as fast as a rabbit..or something..)

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

The speed of transmission is still the same (450 million miles per hour). What changes is the size of the transmission pipe, such that big files can be downloaded much faster.

@shivampatel8928 7 лет назад

@Nat and Lo. How exactly do more than one type of light pass though these types of fiber without interfering with each other?

@spaminbox 7 лет назад

if you have a red laser and a green laser shooting into the fiber sending 1's (on) and 0's (off) you could only read the red when the green is not on and vice versa, but if you see yellow at the other end you know they were both on at the same time. looking for red, green, and yellow you can know the state of both all times. red off, green off = nothing. red on, green off = red. red off, green on = green. red on, green on = yellow. by knowing how light works you can then multiply this by lots of colors of light.

@SageScientific 7 лет назад

The different colors can all transmit down the core of the fiber simultaneously, much like all colors will go thru window glass. The trick is to separate the light at the end of the fiber into the separate colors, then have a detector for each color independently. Then you can get the 1's and 0's for each color. Its called wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) and the typical fibers and hardware can do about 8 bands simultaneously, but that is changing. You can also separate the colors by time (send one color, then second, then back to first, etc) and that is call time division multiplexing. (TDM)

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

As indicated above, the technique is indeed called wavelength division multiplexing and since the wavelengths are essentially different from each other, they transmit down the fiber. There are a few interaction effects among the wavelengths and the interaction effects get more pronounced the closer the channels are packed. However, modern systems are designed with either ability to compensate for these interactions or are designed such that the penalty penalty from these interactions is small. The number of wavelengths that can be packed in a fiber depends on the width of each channel and the amount of spectrum used in the fiber. Currently deployed systems commonly use 96 channels with each channel operating at 100 Gb/s (for long distances) and 200 Gb/s for shorter distances. Upcoming products are expected to double the amount of spectrum as well as the datarate per channel.

@MukilanTM13 7 лет назад

YOU GUYS ARE AMAZINGG!!! :D Btw...how do u guys manage to get into GOOGLE so often!?

@dn5426 7 лет назад

They work there.

@habi3000 7 лет назад

hi Vijay how are you ? could you please explain how data is transmitted if the light is kept on all the time (in long distance cables).also, what does it take some one to become fiber-optic expert ? thanks in advance.

@narutokunn 7 лет назад

Incredible.

@TheExtremeAdventure 6 лет назад

just love your content....

@AnisTarekctg 7 лет назад

thank you so much

@JasonTruitt 7 лет назад

Vijay, do you think it is more likely to build out wireless high speed networks for cities / neighborhoods or is building out a fiber infrastructure still viable? Do you think the price to build a fiber network will drop with new methods and technology making it more feasible? Nat & Lo, thanks for continuing these videos. Love you guys!

@DannyFlanagan1 7 лет назад

How much does it cost to manufacture these fiber optics? And also what is the maintenance and upkeep for the lasers like?

@ramjeesaradi 7 лет назад

Hello Nat, excellent video. I remember studying a long tone ago that fiber optics use the phenomenon of total internal reflection. Do these cables use it.

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

Indeed. The guiding of the light pulses is due to total internal reflection.

@mailmahee 7 лет назад

what changes do we have to do at a software level - once we change from one core to 7+ glass cores?

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

There are two changes required and they are essentially at the optical/electrical level. The software layer views a multicore fiber as essentially a larger pipe. The changes are (i) getting 7 transmitters to couple to the seven cores, and (ii) more sophisticated receiver which can unfurl the coupling effects among the 7 cores.

@friends10031992 7 лет назад

I love this channel so very much

@natandfriends 7 лет назад

thanks for watching!

@MoisesCaster 7 лет назад

Fascinating

@berat7934 7 лет назад

hey ! i love your content and would suggest to do a Google thing video Example:how does google work ? why is it faster than other search engine (and more corect)

@LearnwithNetingles 7 лет назад

great video

@princeagro6687 6 лет назад

I'm interested with this could you share more of it

@jaisonvarghese 7 лет назад

BTW Mac or Highly Modded PC?

@jacobscheer2730 7 лет назад

Is it important that both ends of the cable (transmitter and receiver) are synced together in time? I feel that if they were not in sync then the receiver could be sampling only half of two pulses and get a mixed signal.

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

No the receiver and transmitter do not need any time synchronization and can operate asynchronously. The receiver has its own carrier and timing recovery circuit that ensures proper pulse sampling.

@caspar1999311 7 лет назад

so what do these modulators do? (the ones that encode light for long travel underwater) do they turn the light on and off?

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

There are different types of modulators. The ones used in modern long distance transmission actually modulate both the amplitude and the phase (called QAM modulation). The receivers are coherent receivers that detect the complex electromagnetic field (not just the amplitude but also the phase and polarization)

@arunrangala 7 лет назад

it's been so long..... good to c u with good video

@antoniogabrielchaconmenke83 7 лет назад

How works the touchscreen? and why it only works with fingers or touchpencils (I don't speak very well English… but I hope that you understand me.)

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

Please look at this link for background on how touch screens work. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen. Touchscreens do not use fiber optic technologies and they instead rely on capacitance changes to detect the location of the touch.

@natandfriends 7 лет назад

We also made a video taking apart a phone that goes a bit into how touch screens work: g.co/go/NLphone

@antoniogabrielchaconmenke83 7 лет назад

Thanks! 😏

@fssilvia90 7 лет назад

So what affects the internet speed? What took it so long just to buffer a video (at least in my country)?

@wessamfahmy9898 7 лет назад

thank you

@tapabratamukherjee2648 7 лет назад

It is an awesome video & super-impressed me!! But, I have a question. I am a non-technical person so please forgive if the question pisses you out! Well, my question is - How fast moving internet access can be? I mean, is there any way to enhance the internet speed than what we sense now?

@dhavalpatel8399 7 лет назад

awesome theroy 🤗

@makelikepooandrun 7 лет назад

Does the colour of the laser (light) matter when sending information? Is one colour more effective than the other and why if so.

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

There are subtle differences between the various wavelengths. The differences mostly arise due to specific properties of the fiber (attenuation and dispersion). However, for most types of fiber, the differences are relatively small and modern systems use multiple wavelengths to maximize the capacity transmitted per fiber

@firstimpressionist 7 лет назад

Nice piece 🐼👌🏻

@ashish9ace 7 лет назад

at 0:50 I was laughing my ass off.....lol....ROFL.... great video

@ILOVEGERMANTECHNO 5 лет назад

How does the core used for undersea internet backbones differ from standard OS2 single mode fibre?

@Yathuprem 7 лет назад

Hey Nat and Lo spend some time here in comments !!

@zhulinc 7 лет назад

how does the phase modulator adjust the laser to transmit data?

@LukeKroeker 7 лет назад

These videos are great, but from the title it seemed like it was going to be a deep dive into how fibre works and just skimmed over the surface (more like a trailer). It's piqued my interest, so I might have to do some 'light' reading to fill in the gaps. :)

@vijayvusirikala5796 7 лет назад

Glad this piqued your interest. There are a number of good tutorials on the web that you can use to delve into this fascinating field. A good one is linked here. www.nanog.org/meetings/nanog57/presentations/Monday/mon.tutorial.Steenbergen.Optical.39.pdf