"history of the entire world, i guess" by bill wurtz (Reaction Video) 

23:00 dude did everything in that video all by himself. Music, editing, research. It took him all of 11 months to get done.

probably she knew the video.

@@tx0h Her comments were occasionally *too* accurate, and a couple of times, she responded faster than seems likely for a human being to process I don't begrudge her that ... the creator space is always evolving. What matters is providing content that makes it more likely that that person will click on another video on the creator's channel (called "being entertaining", in old-fashioned talk) And I found her entertaining 🙂

2)So Earth was molten for about a billion years or so. Once it was cooled, life formed pretty quickly, in fact. Single cells were the first life. Very, very simple single cells. The oldest fossils we have date back 3.45 billion years. They are near Marbel Bar, Australia, called The Dresser Formation and is a popular geological site. These are ancient fossilized cyanobacteria. They form a mat layer of themselves that continue to move up as others die, forming these pillar like structures. Cyanobacteria are the easiest microfossil for us to identify, but there are suspected older fossils that are harder to date and identify. Early life formation is fascinating, and explaining how life came about is my favorite thing ever. Chemical evolution is so cool. To start, you have to talk about the Urey-Miller experiment. Back in the 1950s these two biochemists did an experiment in which they took a containment chamber, filled it with water, ammonia, methane, hydrogen, and all the things you expect to find on any fledgling planet. All the things you would expect on any new Earths. They put a fire underneath so it would evaporate, go into another container to be zapped with electrodes, cooled, funneled back to the original container, and cycles back through. They are simulating the patterns of an early Earth and simulating all the elements you could find on Earth. You take early simple ingredients, get them hot, get them cold, zapped with lightning and other normal processes. They ran it for a while, and when they came back, they took samples. To their surprise, the water is no longer clear but is a gross reddish brown. They test it and find it is now full of amino acids. Amino acids are the things that build proteins and make life happen. That is called chemical evolution. Very simple inorganic ingredients come together via totally natural means and form organic macromolecules. There are 4 macromolecules that make up life. Lipids, proteins, carbs, and nucleic acids. Those are the 4 macromolecules that make up everything alive. Each one is a polymer, meaning it's a molecule that forms a chain. I'll explain each of these below: PROTEINS are made of chains of amino acids that fold up on themselves. A chain of amino acids is a primary structure. Then, it folds into an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet called a secondary structure. Then, it forms a glob called a tertiary structure. Sometimes, some globs come together, and that's then a quaternary structure and so on. That's how proteins work. Proteins make up skin, muscle, bones, and everything like that. CARBS are sugars. Long chain simple sugars such as glucose or fructose. If you stick them together, you get sucrose. A bunch of those together makes a polysaccharide. This makes carbs like starch, cellulose, and such. LIPIDS are fats. You have a twisted hydrocarbon chain that repels water, and that's a lipid. There are various kinds like phospholipids where a long hydrocarbon chain comes off it to repel water and, on the other end, is a phosphorus group that attracts water. This makes a hydrophilic and hydrophobic end. One attracts and one repels water. If you take any lipid like cooking oil, for example, and put it in water, it forms a bubble all by itself. Nobody has to tell it to do that. That's because a sphere is the smallest possible surface area and is the most energetically protected from the water around it. It would take more energy to make any other shape, and the universe is lazy. Everything is always as energetically simple as possible. Lipids that naturally form out of normal stuff under normal circumstances naturally form spheres. Amino acids which make proteins that naturally form out of natural stuff can get stuck in one of these spheres, and you now have something that practically represents a cell. All this stuff is formed by totally natural means and naturally assumes the shape of a sphere can naturally come together and form a cell. You can do this in a jar. Now imagine that on a planet taking place over millions of years. The Urey-Miller experiment has been redone in different ways many times by putting other things in, leaving some things out, and hundreds of combinations, and it just always works. Later, we figured out this happens in hydrothermal vents. They pump out acids and bases. These have proton gradients. What's that? Well, an acid is a chemical with a bunch of extra protons, and a base is something that doesn't have enough and has too many electrons. When they neutralize, they give off electrical charges that move one place to the next. This is how your cells make energy today. Mitochondria pass protons across a membrane. This turns a protein called ATP synthase, which makes adenosine triphosphate, and that's how our body works. It's how most cells today work. Where can we find natural proton gradients right now? Hydrothermal vents. Where can we find the building blocks of lipids and proteins? Hydrothermal vents. We can even find amino acids, including all the ones important to life, in space. Just floating on asteroids. They form naturally all by themselves all over. You have the building blocks of life, the thing that makes energy in cells even today happening naturally all by itself in hydrothermal vents and all over the universe. Life then starts all by itself. Now, we also have NUCLEIC ACIDS, the 4th macromolecule, which is DNA and RNA. We do debate what came first, but the most common consensus is that RNA came first. I also follow the RNA world hypothesis. Let me explain why. RNA is cool because it isn't just something that carries information, but it also works as a catalyst to make reactions happen. A catalyst is something that lowers the activation energy of a reaction. It makes a reaction happen easier and faster with less energy. So RNA carries genetic information, it can also make more of itself, and it can make other reactions happen faster. Think about how proteins are made in your body today. It's like this. You have mRNA(messenger RNA) that makes proteins happen. How? It goes to a ribosome to be read. What are ribosomes made of? They are made of rRNA(ribosomal RNA) and aren't membrane bound organelles. In the ribosome, something brings over amino acids to make the protein. What brings them over? tRNA(transfer RNA). So when your body makes proteins, it uses RNA to tell RNA to use RNA to make a protein. Again, you can do this in a jar. That is why the major consensus is that RNA came first. RNA is something that is so unbelievably useful. Why do we have DNA, then? Because once it happened to form, DNA was/is really good at long-term storage, and it's far more stable, meaning it stuck around better. You can divide it, make more of it, pack it into a tight wad and have it twist around proteins called histones to makes a tight rope called chromatin, and then chromatin forms a body called a chromosome. That's how DNA works. It wraps around proteins, wraps into a thick rope, and those thick ropes form a chromosome. It's super easy to divide these and split them up. Is it so hard to believe that some of these naturally forming nucleic acids found their way into a blob of naturally forming lipids? THEN they split, THEN you have 2 sets of chromosomes in a cell THEN cytokenesis happens where actin filaments tighten around the cell in a contractile ring, and remember lipids form bubbles naturally, so once squished together you now have a cleavage furrow that then splits into two seperate bubbles! You now have dividing life out of literally "nothing." It's not difficult at all to say that very simple ingredients found all over the universe that naturally form organic molecules by natural processes then naturally stated making more of themselves. You then get a VERY early organism. Something so insanely simple. Not bacteria, that would be unbelievably complex in comparison. Just a very simple membrane, very simple genetic material, and very simple proteins. The very basics of all of this. That is what we call LUCA. There was probably a ton of very early life, but LUCA is the one that stuck around. Everything that ever lived past that point is related to LUCA. We have a very clear picture of how everything evolved after that. The eukaryotes first appeared at least 2.7 billion years ago, following some to 1.5 billion years of prokaryotic evolution. Studies of their DNA sequences indicate that the archaebacteria and eubacteria are as different from each other as either is from present-day eukaryotes, but I'll get into that later to explain the Domains of life. Prokaryotic cells would have become eukaryotic cells after one cell consumed another cell and just didn't digest it. The two would benifit off of eachother forming an endosymbiotic relationship similar to our gut biomes today. Mitochondrea, for instance, used to be their own independent organisms. One day about a billion years ago, a cell ate one and couldn't digest it. The mitochondria got a ride, protection and food, and the larger cell got energy from the mitochondria consuming things that would otherwise have just been waste. This same thing is what happened with plants and their chloroplasts. Long ago, some early eukaryotes ate some photosynthetic bacteria and didn't digest it. These bacteria are the ancestors of chloroplasts.

3)NOTE: Microbiology and cellular evolution are not my field. Neither is early life. I am not a source for this information. I can tell you the basics that I do know, but don't quote it as accurate. Some might be incorrect or outdated. Now, sponges are thought to be the first, or one of the first, animals going back to around 2.5 billion years old. Filter feeding multicellular organisms anchored to rocks. It's debated what came next, but rangeomorphs are the most accepted. They look like ferns, but those who argue it's not an animal argue that it's fungi which are more closely related to us than plants are. Rangeomorphs likely fed on chemicals in the water. These then would have started becoming free instead of attached to the ocean floor, which would help them "find" more food. Being so spread apart and not connected together poses some problems when you aren't anchored, though, so they likely became more compact around this time forming more of a "skin" or "flesh like" layer compared to sponges which are mostly hollow. These animals would then have looked like worms and had an easier time moving through the water. Something similar to flatworms or arrow worms. This is also where bilateral symmetry starts to appear, as well as a mouth forming from a blastopore. Some worms would find that eating each other is a better source of food, so consequently, we start to see extremely primitive and basal shelled creatures as protection from predators would have been important. This is still in the late Proterozoic. Once the Cambrian period hits, we get the Cambrian Explosion and see a lot more shelled animals like basal mollusks and crustaceans due to increased pressure and more calcium in the water. We see a lot more species start to appear in general at this time. Finally, these animals would split into Echinodermata and Chordata. Early chordates became a lot of things, I'll only focus on becoming vertebrates for simplicity and since we are vertebrates. We would have had very early eel like fish. Living examples are hagfish and lamprey, which are jawless vertebrates. Over time, we would see the development of jaws. Skeletons also developed during the Cambrian due to more and more calcium in the water. Like everything that evolved, it was linked to a higher evolutionary fitness as it was an advantage. Giving an anchor point for your muscles is a huge advantage, allowing more complex and efficient movement and later better structure to the body. The first "bones" were just hardened tissue that an organism, with a random mutation causing local calcium deposits, developed. This showed to be a good thing. So that individual had a better chance of survival and, more importantly, reproduction. This advantage was given to the next generation. That caused the proprortion of individuals, with this hardened tissue, to increase inside the population, slowly applying to the whole species. NOTE: This is now where I know more of what I am talking about. The first jawed vertebrates would have been similar to Placoderms. Big boney skulls where the "jaws" are just sharp bone. Placoderms, of course, are very specialized jawed fish, but the first jawed fish would be similar in the way their jaws are. Some of those jawed fish took a different path. So now we have jaws developed. There are different varieties of specializations that start to appear.

4)Fish history lesson time! So the early fish develop. First, you have Chondrichthyes, the cartilaginous fish like sharks and rays. A little later, you get Actinopterygians, ray finned fish, which are most fish today you'll think of such, and clown fish are just one example. Then, even later, you get Sarcopterygians, lobe finned fish with big meaty fins rather than thin tendrils most fish have. Plenty of lobe finned fish still exist today, but some broke off to become the first tetrapods or four limbed animals. To sum that up, Chondrichthyes evolved. We didn't come from sharks, but we share an ancestor. Then came the Actinopterygians. We didn't come from clownfish, but we share a common ancestor. We did come from Sarcopterygians, and there are still Sarcopterygians today, but did we come from Coelacanths or Lungfish? No, we share a common ancestor who was also a fish. Now you're breathing air right now because around 390 million years ago, some fish evolved lungs. It's super cool on its own, but that's not the point here. Fish have actually been breathing air for a long time. They will go to the surface and gulp air when they are in low oxygen water. Fish today still do this, and I'll get into all that later. They go to the surface and gulp up air to get oxygen, but they can't do it long term since their gills aren't evolved for that. Around the Devonian period, we had fish that developed lungs because of this. Some fish kept those lungs and used them to become "better fish" as they modified into swim bladders. The lungs came first, which seems to shock a lot of people, and swim bladders are just modified lungs fish use to stay neutrally buoyant. We kept things in our evolution, too, like gills. Our gills changed into things like the hyoid bone and outer ears. Some humans still have a preauricular sinus, a little hole on the front of their ear that is literally just a vestigial gill slits. A leftover breathing hole. Why transition to land in the first place, though? There's almost ten times more oxygen up here. It's so easy to make energy. That's why air breathing has evolved not just once but over over 70 different times! Finally, around 375 million years ago during the late Devonian period, one of the most important fish to ever live first evolved. Its name was Tiktaalic. It was a lobe finned fish, Sarcopterygian, with a lot of amphibian features that was able to push itself up with its fins and get onto land. It had incredible new adaptations no other life form developed before. Big thick bones in its front limbs and shoulders which allowed it to push its body up along the bottom of the muddy banks, and a set of primitive lungs it could use to stay on land for extended periods. It was technically a fish, but from it we get every single tetrapod or four limbed animal who ever lived including Ichthyostega, one of the first animals to walk around on all fours on dry land, and all the way up to every stork, horse, python, turtle, frog, hampster, dolphin and human alive today. Now I'm going to take a different turn, but stay with me. Fish, amphibians, and reptiles do not seem to hiccup as far as we know, although gill ventilation is an analogous reflex. As we mammals breathe, we do so using a style called ventilation or sometimes known as respiration. We use our inspiratory muscles such as the diaphragm, parasternal and external intercostal muscles, and several neck muscles to pull in air for pulmonary gas exchange, and then we put our abdominal muscles to work in order to push air containing CO2 out. This is in stark contrast to what happens when we hiccup. You probably know that hiccups happen because of the diaphragm. This muscle evolved quite a bit after our first tetrapod ancestors who braved the coast into the forests of yore. As said previously, air breathing developed long before in the water in what would be reminiscent of modern lungfish. This ancestor had both gills and primitive lungs, along with being one of the first animals to evolve a neck. It used a basal form of gas exchange where it used its buccal muscles to pump in either air or water, which was then diverted to the gills or the lung sacks. Both gill and lung respiration are managed in a cyclical and rhythmic fashion. The muscle sequences can vary, but the overall mechanism is the same. From gar, lungfish, and fully fledged frogs to filter feeding tadpoles. It's orchestrated by the brainstem CPGs. These are essentially neural networks that work in an oscillation pattern. They were once used for gill ventilation, but they have been retrofitted for air respiration. In evolution, a general principal we can understand is that behaviors tend to come before morphological change. This is because a behavior is much more flexible and can itself facilitate pressures for new mutations should they arise. One of our fish ancestors, for example, the Eusthenopteron, was a lobe finned fish that had both lungs and gills and lived in costal waters. A migration inland to avoid super predators like Dunkleosteus is a behavior. That movement inland would expose these ancestors to more eutrophic waters thanks to the plants invading land at the same time. With low oxygen in the water, we would suddenly see a spike in the pressure for animals able to exploit oxygen capture by alternative means like by air. So, behavior in this case has helped facilitate morphologic selection. Some might/do suggest that this is all just speculation, but fortunately, we can SEE this exact change. This precise prediction occurs before our eyes in the tadpole. As we know, tadpoles are the young of frogs and must undergo metamorphosis, a total body plan overhaul to reach their adult forms. We have an organism undergoing something very similar to what the first air breathers went through in several generations. Pre-metamorphic tadpoles have all the equipment for both gill and lung breathing, but their lungs are inhibited by a GABAB dependant pathing that doesn't seem to have an impact on gill CPG. Tadpoles currently undergoing metamorphosis have gill ventilation that gradually becomes more conroled until post metamorphosis, where they eventually degenerate and the adult frog rely exclusively on air. This air breathing is only itself controlled by the same rhythmic oscillations that controlled the gills. The only real difference between gill and lung CPGs are the structures they regulate. Now, after that long string of text, you might ask what the evolution of air breathing has to do with hiccups. Well, the ventilatory motor patterns of lower vetrabrates like lungfish, frogs, and gar are shared in the properties of the standard hiccup. The sudden inspiration, inhibition of expiration, and a sharp epiglottis closure that is then repeated in an ossolatory pattern. It's purposed that the hiccup is the resurgence of an archaic motor pattern that governs the breathing of modern frogs and the ancient early air breathers. Furthermore, this circuit is accessed most frequently in infancy, where it aids a baby mammal in suckling, which explains why it likely stuck around. This is most underscored by the location of the reflexes regulation in the medulla. The medulla is also responsible for blood vessel dilation, heart rate, breathing, digestion, sneezing, vomiting, and involuntary coughs. Literally, just all your basic involuntary body controls necessary for survival. If anything happens to your medulla, it is essentially a death sentence. It seemed odd that such a trivial reflex would be controlled by one of our oldest brain regions, but it very well may be that the hiccup used to control a much more vital function. Basal air respiration. Furthermore, nearly every mammal gets the hiccups, and they start as early as the animal is still in the womb, which provides more evidence of this being a resurgence of an older trait necessary for survival. Every time you catch the hiccups, you can now enjoy knowing that you are echoing the first gasps of some ancient lungfish making its way up the coast and onto land. Awesome. Now, we see the animals before the dinosaurs came about, but where did mammals come from then?

5) The sauropsids (the ancestors of reptiles of all sorts) and the synapsids (that’s mammals and their ancestors) share a common ancestor that was a basal amniote. This ancestor split off some time during the Devonian Period, probably between 294 and 323 million years ago. The synapsids went on to evolve into Mammaliaformes such as Tritylodontids and Morganucodontids sometime during the Triassic Period, in the “age of dinosaurs” also known as the Mesozoic Era. Synapsids never evolved scales as far as we know. We’ve found impressions from the hides of some synapsids, and they have an irregular pattern of bumps and pits, not scales. The pits may be the openings of glands, which would be something they had in common with modern mammals such as elephants and rhinos. The synapsids pretty much dominated the Permian Period, evolving into some impressive large forms such as the Lystrosaurus, but then mostly died out during the PT mass extinction. One clade, the cynodonts, survived and were mostly small predators. They evolved some mammal like traits such as a secondary bony palate, fewer bones in the lower jaw (some of the “missing” bones migrated rearward and up, and would later become the ear bones of mammals), and larger brains though still small compared to most modern mammals. As the early dinosaurs became more common and more dominant, the cynodonts shrank. Perhaps they had trouble competing with the dinosaurs and began going nocturnal. They were likey becoming warm blooded to help stop fungal infections due to burrowing and were more comfortable at night. There were most likely a ton of things that simply made life easier as a smaller animal. By the time the late Triassic Period rolls around, it becomes truly academic whether a certain synapsid was a “true” mammal or not. Some of these animals had jaw joints that were precisely in the middle between older synapids’ jaw joints and those of mammals. The teeth could mesh together smoothly to chew food, the cerebellum kept getting bigger, and so on. Mammals have come onto the scene now. Meanwhile, while all this is happening with mammals, the sauropsids that survived the PT extinction start to become the dinosaurs. They evolved and took up the top predator niche. Unlimited food due to higher CO2 levels, massive size, and little to no predators. They were using up all the resources. Nothing new could come about. Only the smallest mammals could survive, and so they did. They thrived as burrowing and scavenging animals. This went on for an extraordinarily long time until the KT extinction event happened. It virtually wiped out the dinosaurs. They would almost reclaim their spot in the top predator niche through the evolution of terror birds, but they ended up dying out too. The remaining reptiles didn't return because their large size could not be supported anymore as oxygen content in the air took a downward dive and as their food, or their foods food, died out. The climate change and continental drift resulted in hyper-specialized dinosaurs being wiped out, and then there were only a handful left. They didn't fare very well either. Large dinosaurs were wiped out as the plants died out. This extinction events major explanations being either volcanoes or meteors (both supported by geological evidence) would have blocked out sunlight, resulting in a nuclear "winter" of sorts that killed off plants. The sauropods were driven to death, no longer being able to support their massive bodies without the trees essential to their lifestyle. Hunting and scavenging dinosaurs fared well for quite a while after this extinction due to the dead sauropods all over. After that food supply ran out, small dinosaurs were the only ones capable of hunting the burrowing mammals of the time, so it gave them enough time to evolve speedily under stress. These would be groups of avian dinosaurs, which would later become birds. Back to the mammals, though, as the food chain is wiped and the specialized niches up for grabs, the mammals took over. They took advantage of everything the dinosaurs had come to take for granted due to that hyper-specialization. Life was great for dinosaurs and scary for mammals, but then the environmental pressures changed. Dinosaurs fell off, and mammals rose up. Let's sum this up. Basal amniotes are the ancestors to both sauropsids and the synapsids. Both of these groups evolve into large animals until the PT extinction comes along. The main surviving sauropsid, Proterosuchus, would go on to become the dinosaurs. The main surviving synapsid, Lystrosaurus, would go on to become true mammals. The dinosaurs took over as top predators and mammals could not compete, so they became small rodent like animals. When the KT extinction happened and all but some avian dinosaurs were wiped out, the mammals became free of the top predators and then were able to grow themselves.

6) After the K-T extinction event, the small mammals who survived adapted to life in various different environments as they took over the world. Jungle habitats are where primate evolution starts. The earliest primate ancestor we know of is Purgatorius, and it looked much more like a treeshrew. These then specialize even more for arboreal life into Plesiadapiforms, which are starting to become larger and into what we call proto primates When we look back on the line of descent leading up to humans, it goes like this. You have basal primates like plesiadapiforms split into haplorhines and strepsirrhines. Strepsirrhines continue to do their own thing and further specialize in their own way, but we are haplorhines. Haplorhines split into simiiformes and tarsiiformes. Tarsiiformes continue to do their own thing and split into their own specialized groups, but we are Simiiformes. Basal simiiformes end up in different ecosystems, and due to different pressures, they split into platyrrhines(the New World Monkeys) and catarrhines. The New World Monkeys continue to do their own thing and further specialize in their own way. The basal catarrhines end up in different ecosystems, and due to different pressures, they split into cercopithecoids(the Old World monkeys) and hominoidea(Apes). Hominoids then further split into Hylobatidae(lesser apes/gibbons) and Hominidae(great apes). The hominids split into homininae and ponginae. Ponginae is the line that would lead to Orangutans. They are our our most further removed cousins. Hominines split into gorillini, which would become gorillas who are the next to split and next most removed cousins, and hominini. Hominini is the tribe that holds the creatures that would later split into the ancestor of Humans and our cousins the Panins(chimps and bonobos). Sahelanthropus tchadensis is what we currently believe to be the last common ancestor we shared with Panins 6-7 million years ago. It lived at the right time, it had the right characteristics, and it lived in the African Rift Valley when it would be split. This is what would cause the split into Panins and our line. They would become ardipithecines, australopithecines, paranthropines, and homo among other things. There you have it, a gross oversimplification of things from the humble beginnings of life all the way up to us. I am happy to answer any questions anybody might have and get into more details on things.

tbh, it is also mentionned in africa (Ghana empire) around 9:34

Slavery was practiced pretty much everywhere and all the time untill it was abolished in western world. So, it makes sence to only mention the regions where it had remarkably large scale. And it was Atlantic Slave Trade where higher technological advancement allowed to transport barely comprehensible amount of slaves.

@@voidseeker4394 remarkably large scale? The Atlantic Slave trade to North/South America was miniscule if you compare it to the Trans Saharan Slave trade that lasted for 1,300 years! More Sub-Saharan Africans were sold to Muslim countries than to Europe and the Americas combined and castrated their slaves so they couldn't breed. The Slavic people of Europe were enslaved from the 8th century until the 19th century....11 centuries....1,100 years. And thats just scratching the surface of long or horrendous slavery practiced by different empires throughout history. The Moorish Empire, The Mongolian Empire, The Ottoman Turks etc all had horrific slave practices, genocide practices, rape, brought diseases to new lands and colonized massive areas.

He did it all himself. Research, editing, music.

Hi Dallas! :) I don't believe that I've ever heard of Tim Minchin or seen that video. From looking at it for a brief second I like his look lol. Music is something that I listen to all of the time so I look forward to knowing some new stuff. Do you enjoy Tim Minchin in general or is that singular piece something you enjoy? I'll go ahead and save your request so that I can use it in the future. Thank you for the video suggestion and for coming by to check out this reaction, I appreciate your time. Have a great rest of your day! :]

Hyper boomer take. Capitalism is an authoritarian economic model. Socialism is labor owns labor. Communism is when we all work together to prosper. Unfortunately, the US prevented socialism from happening and authoritarians took over communist governments. Anyway, the geriatrics have been saying that the kids don't want to work anymore since the dawn of time. It's never true.

exactly what I was thinking