The Secret World of Ones and Zeroes: Moore's Law Explained 

"Oh quantum mechanics you enchanting treacherous minx" 6:30 this is the best thing I've heard today

I'm living in 2020 and we've achieved 7nm already. 5nm from TSMC is a work in progress, also Moore's Law is going to end , probably

"Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic." -Clarke's Third Law Therefore my sufficiently advanced glowing box of a monitor is magic. Huzzah!

Just saying, the Core i7-5960X has 2.6 billion transistors... while that's not 5 billion, we should be seeing that with the release of the Broadwell architecture.

just seen a RU-vid advert for Intel. How fittingly appropriate

I fucking love computer science it's so intriguing

Good news everyone! We've hit 7 nm. IBM was the first to create a 7nm chip with 20 billion transistors.. I love technology.

This is a great video, but Hank got some of his facts outdated or wrong: - Moore's law is just as true today as it was the day it was formulated. Intel's E3-12xx v3 and E5-16xx/26xx v3 Xeons based on the Haswell microarchitecture have 5.56 billion transistors. Some of those models were released one year before this video was created. - The "gap between transistor channels" he is referring to around 5:30 is actually called the "Feature size" and it's not a measure of distance between different elements of the same transistor, but instead refers to the average half-pitch (half the distance between identical semiconductor structures arranged in an array pattern, for instance two adjacent memory cells). The "gap between transistor channels", as he puts it, is about 0.5nm. - Most currently available consumer Intel CPU's are built with a feature size of 22nm since 2012, and the end of 2014 saw the launch of products built on 14nm tech. - Most of the heat generated by microprocessors is not due to the great number of transistors packed close together, but rather to a phenomenon known as "leakage current" - a very small amount of current is flowing through the transistors even when they are turned off. While this leakage is proportional to the number of transistors inside the chip, it is mainly a function of the manufacturing process. Newer manufacturing processes have greatly reduced the leakage current - that's why we can now have cellphones (that run off batteries) with CPUs that rival the processing power of desktops from less than a decade ago (that could be used as space heaters). - Multi-core consumer processing has been around since 2005. Nowadays most battery powered gadget has up to 8 CPU cores, and high-end server CPUs can have as many as 18 - that's 36 threads of code that can run in parallel with HyperThreading, and that's all in just one of potentially many CPUs inside a single system. - Software that makes use of multiple processors has been available for decades in the server space, but since the introduction of consumer multi-core processing, it has caught up nicely to use all the available resources. Most of the tasks that PCs, smartphones and tablets are used for actually lend themselves very well to parallel processing - video and audio decoding/encoding, multi-tab web browsing, anti-malware scanning etc. - sometimes all done at the same time :) (plus he gets bits and bytes mixed up) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haswell_(microarchitecture)#Server_processors en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22_nanometer

Ahh, quantum mechanics. You make life interesting.

this is the scishow episode i have always been waiting for. thank you for finally making this :D

I love this because after 3 years of programming classes and 6+ years of hanging out primarily with computer geeks, this is the first time anyone has ever explained transistors and how binary code works with hardware to me in a way that actually makes sense. Everyone before was always just like "oh it just sends ones and zeros" or "it turns on and off"" and considered that helpful when really it explains absolutely nothing. So thank you so much for explaining the actual "how" of it

So, when he got to the part where 32nm processors were small, I got confused until I looked at the year this was uploaded. Absolutely crazy how technology evolves, considering we are at 7nm processors as of now.

As electronic chip designer by education, I gotta say it's a VERY simplified explanation. In reality open transistor (in so called "gate mode") would consume insane amount of power since it's resistance is very low, so engineers came up with the trick to put two transistors into each gate, such that at every moment of time one of them is always closed. Such structure is called "complementary pair" (which is where name CMOS - Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor - comes from), and is very energy-efficient, as it only consumes power during transitions from 0 to 1 and back. Each complementary pair performs logical function "NOT", and it's possible to implement any logical function using just that basic element.

"Oh, quantum mechanics, you enchanting, treacherous minx." I love this guy. :D

Finally, to anyone who cares, the reason different components can interpret data in a different manner (although in a theoretically similar state) is because of 1) the Operating System and 2) the device controller, not to be confused with device driver. If anyone is interested, although it is a technical read, I suggest you look into Hardware Abstraction Layers and Operating System Kernels Sincerely, a friendly Software Engineer:)

Solution: make atoms smaller, obviously!

For starters, transistors do not hold ones and zeros. One and zero are just two different voltage levels; wires hold them. Transistors just allow or deny a one or zero to be transferred from one wire to another - and the cool thing is that they allow or deny based on the voltage in a third wire. So you can have ones and zeros moving around wires based on other ones and zeros in other wires. Your characterizing transistors' on/off states as one/zero is wrong - on means the two wires are connected (both one or both zero), and off means the two wires are disconnected (and might be different). The bit about a byte being in eight transistors is wrong - a byte is in eight wires, which may be connected to transistors. And as for the storage of bits in a computer, well, storing a bit takes (at least) eight transistors wired together in a configuration generally known as a "flip flop" (there are several kinds), so the bit about a byte being in eight transistors is still wrong. For as well as you covered the operation of semiconductor devices, you might as well have said "they're magic." All you did was explain how insulating silicon can become partially conductive if you dope it. Well, we already have conductive things, we call them wires. Why are these particular types of silicon useful? What's the point of talking about doping and stuff without even mentioning p- and n-type semiconductors, or the way they are mashed together to make transistors? Honestly, it's fine if you don't want to explain that stuff - it's complicated and difficult to explain to laypeople who don't have any quantum mechanics and electronics background. But then why talk about doping? Why not simply talk about what transistors do (control the connection between two wires based on the voltage in a third wire) without trying (and failing) to get into the technical details? Also, talking about all those materials, but no love for gallium arsenide? The bit about optical computing made me cringe - the advantage has *nothing* to do with the speed of the constituent particles, it has to do with bandwidth. The speed that electrons drift in a wire is irrelevant to the speed that electrical signals flow, in the same way that the time that it takes the water to get from the water tower to your faucet is irrelevant to how fast the water starts flowing when you turn the knob. There was already water there; a wave of water pressure is pushing it out the faucet. There were already electrons there; a wave of electric field is pushing it. And because it depends on electric fields, electricity travels at the speed of light. Remember that light actually *is* electric fields, so there's really not a lot of conceptual difference between an optical computer and an electronic computer except the frequencies involved are much higher in an optical computer (and the devices and materials you use are different to deal with this). And that's the advantage, too; higher frequency means more bandwidth. Fortunately you did not talk about quantum computing in enough detail for me to get mad at you.

Well like 99% of your phone is the battery so we need to fix the battery before we do anything else...

I am a dedicated SciShow follower so I don't know how I missed this one but I sure am glad I found it. As an X-ray tech I got kind of familiar with photons, (although I could never get one to slow down enough to actually pet it). I also studied computer science at Tufts University in Mass. for a year but my husband got lung cancer and I had to drop out to take care of him. So I have a little programming and a little physics but basically no hardware knowledge. Now I do thanks to you! The light of lasers has finally penetrated the "off" position in my brain switched it to "on".

There's still another way. We could fold the spacetime around the computer in the opposite direction gravity folds it - the computer could then do a year worth work in minutes. Or rather - we would get the result of the computer working for a year in minutes.

So basically were at a point with computers, almost.. we probably have 5 to 10 years to go, but wherever it goes next, its going to be flipping awesome next isn't it?

I have newfound respect for those who have to program computer parts to read all combination of 1's and 0's.

Finally ... Someone sayed how that shit works ...

As a Computing teacher in an English Secondary school I have just been made very happy! This is the basis for at least one lesson in September!

I'm kinda hoping that one day Hank will tell us that it is magic that makes things work...

Faster computers would be amazing for games. If a computer ever got to the point where it could render scenes faster than the brain could process the scene, then graphics would literally be indecipherable from reality.

0:44 Old school 80-90s UV erasable EPROMs, Front one is an AMD brand 27C256 to be exact.

Hank, recently researchers in Silicon Valley have unveiled the Skyscraper theory (or Skyscraper processor) which uses Carbon Nano Tubes in a series of layers to which looks like... Well... A skyscraper. The skyscraper theory has been around of ages now but the largest hurdle was maintaining a consist temperature, as which you noted, could very easily melt through other components, however Carbon Nano Tubing allows the device to stay much cooler as long as it is in collaboration with other cooling technologies. The device implements a component known as an "Elevator" which allows different floors (or process layers) to communicate data with one one another. This is a significant find as one thing you had not explicitly mentioned was that, indeed several processors can crunch data synchronously or asynchronously a lot of limitations is head in the physical communicate line between the processors (Data Bus).

But the information in a circuit travels at 2/3 the speed of light, right? It is the individual electrons themselves that have a translational velocity of mm/cm per hour

Moore's law is actually 18 months not 2 years.

This' is the Best video I've seen explaining Transistors, Moore's Law and the current limitations of it and processors with diff. possible options, awesome!!

I think that may be the longest introduction segment in any SciShow video I've ever seen. ...Love this guy, BTW

Electrons are not slow. Depending on the medium they are traveling in, thry go between 97 and 98% of the speed of light. The 8.5 cm/hour was poorly explained and misguided lots of people. It's the flow of AC that is travelling at 8.5cm/hour, not the electrons themselves.

Hmmm quantum computers. That would be cool. The whole bandwidth and clockspeed issues will be obsolete :)

As a computer Science/ I.T ,CNET Major this video is exellent. We are actually working on alternatives to how chips are made, biggest contender being gemstones, Specifically Emeralds. That's why we have multicored CPU's to adjust for the more chips issue. Software actually has not been able to keep up with hardware advances.We actaully recently started bringing back multi soketed motherboards again and more monsterous CPU's like Threadripper

Topic about transistors and microchips. *looks at motherboard through case window* "Hmm...."

Temporary solution; make the processors bigger in size. Sure we'll need to develop new motherboards that support them but so what? Processors are some of the smallest components in a pc- but why

Great video, poor mastering. You can hear someone tapping the mic at 2:22, and more background and other sounds in the video at different places

Awesome video. Just thought I'd point something out incase anyone is curious. This video implied that a single transistor represents a bit of information. This actually isn't the case, as transistors are not as simple as being either on or off (it would be awesome if they were). This is an extreme oversimplification. Memory elements, such as bits, are actually composed of a circuit of transistors called flip flops. The amount of transistors in a flip flop varies depending on how it is implemented and what type of memory you want (volatile or non-volatile) but they typically cost around 8 transistors. This isn't even including the high enable needed on each flip flop in order for the computer to address the memory.

This was one of my favorite episodes.

I certainly hope this takes a bit longer, or by the time i finish my computer engineering major it'll all be irrelevant.

my gtx 980ti has 8 billion transistors, the chip is bigger in size as a cpu though as it is created on 28nm process

Thank you, Lord Helix, for the close captioning. I am terrible at listening to words and retaining them. I need to read them for anything to make it into my head properly.

Fantastic summary. A couple of details I'd like to clarify though: 1. Transistors don't just have two modes (on/off), they can actually have infinitely many modes since the amount of current it passes when it is "on" can be controlled rather precisely. This is how things like audio amplifiers work. However, early on we developed a way of using transistors called "digital logic" that uses only two possible states for a number of reasons. For example, it has the potential to use less power to perform a given calculation and it can also be much more robustness in tough environments. 2. Although the speed of electrons themselves are, in fact, quite slow through normal materials (this is called its "drift velocity"), the speed of the information through electrical systems does pass at near the speed of light. This is because the information we are interested in travels as an electromagnetic field. Electrons are, of course, affected by the field and it is the electrons themselves that make the switching action of a transistor work. However, a single electron is never used to pass information from one place to another by itself. Instead, think of moving a column of water through a hose (to use a cliched example - better suggestions are appreciated!): a section of water 100m from the end will take time to exit, but the water begins to flow almost instantly (assuming the hose is already full) because of the pressure that is formed in the hose. In the case of electronics, it is the pressure (em field, voltage) and the flow (current) that we are generally interested in, rather than the exact location of any single electron. I hope that makes sense.

explain quantum computing more please

My computer runs on faith, not ones and zeros.

I participated in an internship at the University of Arizona's Physics department this summer working on Magnetic Tunnel Junctions (MTJs) as replacements for transistors. They can be much much smaller than transistors in that they inherently rely on the electrons tunneling through the separative insulating dielectric. Instead of relying on the electron's charge, they rely on the electrons spin (spin up or spin down), and the magnetic orientation of two ferromagnetic conductive layers on either side of the dielectric determines the resistance of the MTJ (High resistance equals 1, low resistance equals 0, similar to a transistor). On top of their size, MTJs are also resistance to power loss or power surges due to their magnetic nature, they are resistant to radiation (so applications in space could be on the horizon), and their heat density is practically nothing due to the lack of electrons being bled into the surroundings of the microchip. What do you guys at SciShow think of the idea of MTJs? They have been around since 1975, and modern samples have been able to get resistance changes of ~400% at room temperature, so they could be ready for modern applications very soon!

Nice, detailed video. Crisp & clear!

Just a little clarification. Intel's14nm process is ready and they have said commercial shipments of processors based on 14nm will ship by the end of the year. Samsung and Glo-Fo will be ready to start using their own 14nm fab this year as well and TSMC is working on a 12nm fab process. Also D-Wave has quantum computers out in the world. NASA and Google each have one and Lockheed Martin just bought one. These are not gpcpus but specialized for specific purposes however they are still quantum computers and they are on the market for a ton of cash.

AMD watching this & seeing 7:56 : *insert gif of Spongebob saying "write that down"

I don't know you guys, but I think this was his best show. I laugh so much! Thank you man that talks fast.....I mean..... real fast!

Great topic. Was very excited to watch it. Keep up the good work.

"Oh, quantum mechanics, you charming, treacherous minx." XD

Moore, and Moore, and MOoooRe!

Really nice video session.....such a useful information presented in a beautiful manner... Thanks a lot

Cool channel...I found out about you by sitting on the L train in NYC and the whole cart was wrapped with your ad. I'm talking about the most psychedelic trippy train I've ever seen...your ad is like tripping acid! Good Job

It seems like there are multiple ways each problem can be addressed, each having varying degrees of practicality. For example, generating too much heat. Some might say the obvious solution is to make it generate less heat, some might say the solution is to remove the heat it generates fast enough. Is there a way we can USE the heat productively rather than just thinking of it as an unwanted by-product to be rid of?

If current gaps are ~30nm, having a photon computer would greatly reduce the number of "transistors" or whatever the fundamental component of a light computer would be, because visible light is in the 100-1000 nm range. But perhaps more could be accomplished with a smaller number of components. I don't quite understand how the speed of the actual electrons matters here, because the electric field propagates at light speed. Any change in electrical current and voltage will be "felt" down the line however fast one electron's motion can affect adjacent electrons, and then how fast those electrons affect the ones behind them, etc. I must be missing something, because some very smart people are convinced that this would be better. Best of luck to them. Let me know when there's a compiler for it.

Just for clarification: we are already at 22 nm chips. Intel, Nvidia and AMD (just to name a few) are working on 16 nm tech for 2016-2017 if I remember well. Like many have said, we will have to make the chips bigger and put more of them together to boost our processing power. Interesting to note that we will have to make our tech bigger when for so long we have worked to get it smaller.

Hank, this is the most entertaining one you have done so far. Keep up the humor.

i want biocomputers. a system that includes living organisms like in Hitch Hikers guide.

Great episode, but how do you get 2,292 thumbs up with just 362 views, without magic...or quantum computing?

I prefer long videos like this, I can do something while listening& they can actually fully explain things

the best video i have ever watched about transistors. Thank you!

I dont normally comment on clothing, being a dude and all, but that shirt he's wearing is FLY.

"Because I know you like it!" Really, Hank? *Really??!* xD

HOLY CRAP HANK THIS HAS BEEN THE BEST EPISODE OF SCISHOW IN HISTORY!!!....Really though, this is my favorite show so far. Please keep all the tech computer stuff coming. I feel like I got more out of this than I did from one semester of a Programming Fundamentals class at my local community college 1+ years ago. Where can I go to learn more about this stuff?

Really nicely done! This is the first time I think I have managed a rudimentary understanding of the topics in the video.

We need to adopt the yes/no/maybe system instead

Disappointed that you didn't cover the option of making chips layered.

Greatly explained! Great Channel!

Do a video about quantum computing! I've seen videos about it, but SciShow has a knack for making it easier to understand! Keep up the good work!

Might sound stupid but why can we just bigger chips with the same sized transistors?

... why don't they just make the cpu's bigger, i mean obviously not in like phones or tablets or any small "handheld" device, but i mean what does it matter if you make the chip 2x or even 4x bigger in a desktop/ mid-large laptop? i mean the laptop will still be just as thin and who moves their desktop regularly. even if you made a chip as big as a modern mobo, you would just need to make a new form for mobo's and cases. if it meant 10x faster processing then sure why not? why try getting smaller when you could go big?

thank you, so much clarity and fun to watch and understand concepts. Good for all ages ;)

Sweet. So glad you guys did this video!

Graphene where art thou. Personally i'm waiting for graphene, cause they're actively researching the matter and it's feasible unlike lasers or quantum computing. They're too advanced. graphene is here and now.

you lost me at "it's not magic"

I'm so happy that finally a video for the layman states that the smallest unit is the byte, not the bit. The computer doesn't think in binary, it thinks in base 256.

Really great video. Helps one understand the potential future of computing.

Yeah boys we are at 7 NM rn

Or make the chips bigger

Where was this video when I gave a report on Moore's Law like 10+ years ago...? well done!

Nice one as always guys. More cool vids about circuits and transistors are always nice :)

How about magic? With all of the advances in creation science ,I'm sure they have a computer that runs off faith by now.

we are currently at the 16-22nm fabrication node.

hello, i'm training at a giant company and they showed us this video as part of the training and it's the one that has made the most sense to me, thank you for making it!

Awesome episode!

Okay, very stupid question but it seems that in some instances nature tends to do things better than us. Is there anything analogous to transistors in an animal brain? I know humans connect nerves in order to create memories but do we have anything that behaves the same way as transistors in our brains? And also if there is such thing why not try to replicate it?

Isn't it possible to just make a bigger processor? With a custom motherboard and...

My mind was blown indeed. I didn't expect electrons to be so slow, yet electrical current holds so much power.

Hank, this was a great episode. Thank you!!!!!!!

Why don't we just make the chips slightly bigger?

Transistors are not binary: they're analog, with a response curve based on their input. A lot of engineering has gone into discovering how to design circuits that can use these decidedly NOT binary elements to implement binary functions.

I started watching your videos last night.....it's morning now.....I can't stop lol

Always wanted to know about this. Thank you!

Anyone else skeptical about that 8.5 cm/hr? That's approximately 0.00005 mph, which is about 100,000 times slower than a human can walk...yeah, I don't think so...

Neat stuff except I don't know where you were going with the 6.5cm/hr electrons to a lamp analogy. we're talking data transfer, not raw power. Data represented by electrons travels down copper at something like .6 * c (speed o' light). can't look up exact figure... it's like two in the morning and I'm nodding off.

Amazing video! Thanks!!!!!!!

I found this episode to be exeptionally great! I have no idea why, but so it is.